The initiation of the uprising 

On February 15, 2011, anti-government rallies held in Benghazi were held by protesters, who were angered by the arrest of Fethi Tarbel, a human rights lawyer. Several injuries resulted within the civilian crowd as a result of Libyan security forces. Countering the demonstrations further, a pro-government rally orchestrated by Libyan authorities was broadcast on television. 

Intensified protests resulting from the status quo led to demonstrators asserting control of Benghazi, with unrest spreading to Tripoli. The Libyan government subsequently began to use lethal force against demonstrators. A restriction of communications was characteristic of the regime. On February 21st, Sayf al-Islam, Gaddafi’s son, addressed defiantly outside agitators for the unrest and said further demonstrations could spark civil war in the country. 

The sudden escalation of violence from the government against protesters and other civilians drew international condemnation from human rights organisations and foreign governments. Damage was inflicted on the coherence of the regime, causing numerous high-ranked officials to resign in protest, or issue statements to condemn the regime. Libyan embassies around the world began to fly Libya’s pro-Gaddafi flag to signal support for the rebellion uprising. 

Gaddafi delivered an angry, rambling speech on state television on February 22nd, to relegate the protesters to being traitors and calling on his supporters to combat them. He resisted calls to abdicate and vowed to remain in Libya. Though he denied any use of force to fight protesters, he incessantly vowed to utilise violence to remain in power. 

Clashes continued as Gaddafi’s hold on power weakened with Libyan military units gradually siding with the opposition against the regime. The anti-Gaddafi movement increasingly morphed into the form of an armed rebellion. Newly armed rebel forces were able to expel most pro-Gaddafi troops from eastern Libya. Pro-Gaddafi paramilitary units persistently held the city of Tripoli, where Gaddafi, his inner circle and family members remained. 

As massed forces of Gaddafi’s in the Tripoli area were gathered to hold off rebels, public statements seem to indicate increased isolation and desperation. He spoke to the Libyan state television on February 24th. He once again lashed out at protesters, saying the young people at its core were acting under the influence of hallucinogens and that Al-Qaeda controlled demonstrations.

The United Nations Security Council unanimously approved a measure to include exacting sanctions against the Gaddafi regime, imposing a travel ban and arms embargo while freezing the assets of the Gaddafi family. The measure also referred the situation to the International Criminal Court while the United States and European Union imposed sanctions alongside many other countries. 

An oppositional representative and a stalemate

A rebel leadership council, the Transitional National Council (TNC), formed by the merger of local rebel groups, appeared in Benghazi in early March. The TNC declared its aims to act as the rebellion’s military leadership and representative of the Libyan opposition, providing services in rebel-held areas and guiding the country’s transition to a democratic government. 

After succeeding in taking control of eastern Libya and several western cities, the conflict entered a stalemate, with the Gaddafi regime controlling enough soldiers and weapons to hold Tripoli and stage fresh assaults, meanwhile, the rebel fighters, though poorly equipped were able to oppose.

International response and intervention

As Gaddafi appeared to gain the upper hand, the international community sparked debate surrounding diplomatic and military responses towards the rapidly developing conflict, working to establish contact with the TNC – announcing on March 10th that the TNC would be treated as Libya’s legitimate government. International condemnation of the Gaddafi regime continued to rise, and at an emergency summit on March 11th, the EU unanimously called for Gaddafi to step down, however, the international community remained divided on the possibility of military intervention, imposing a no-fly zone over Libya.

On March 19th, a coalition of U.S. and European forces initiated warplanes and cruise missile attacks directed in Libya to disable its air force and air defence systems so that the UN-authorised no-fly zone could be imposed. Emboldened by the air strikes, rebel forces once again launched an offensive to challenge pro-Gaddafi forces' hold on oil centres on the coast. Gaddafi denounced coalition attacks as an act of aggression against Libya, vowing to continue fighting international forces and the rebels. 

Coalition spokesman announced on March 23rd that the Libyan air forces were completely disabled by the air strikes. However, fighting on the ground continued, with pro-Gaddafi units massing around the rebel-held city of Misurata in the west and Ajdābayā in the east, shelling both heavily and causing significant casualties. 

Military operations 

On March 27th, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) officially took command of military operations previously directed by the US, France and the UK. The handover came after NATO debates on limits of international military intervention after several countries argued aggressive targeting of pro-Gaddafi ground forces had exceeded the mandate set by the UNSC to protect civilians. 

Libyan foreign minister, Moussa Koussa defected on March 30th, fleeing to the United Kingdom. The defection of the former head of Libyan intelligence and a long-time member of Gaddafi’s inner circle was interpreted as a sign that support was waning for Gaddafi among senior Libyan officials. Diplomatic efforts for resolution intensified with an African Union delegation presenting a ceasefire plan to Gaddafi. It was announced this was accepted by Gaddafi, however, it was rejected by the rebel leaders on the grounds it did not provide for his departure from Libya. 

NATO attacks pursued and targeted several sites associated with Gaddafi and members of his inner circle, drawing protests from Libyan officials who charged that NATO had adopted a strategy of attempting to kill Gaddafi. In June, the ICC issued arrest warrants for Gaddafi and members of his inner circle, Abdullah Senussi – his intelligence chief – and Sayf al-Islam – his son – for ordering attacks against civilians during the uprising. 

A shift in the stalemate

After months of stalemate, the balance of power shifted in the rebels’ favour. Rebels soon advanced into Tripoli, establishing control over some areas of the capital on August 22nd, and as rebel forces battled pro-Gaddafi forces for control of Tripoli, Gaddafi’s location was unknown. 

By early September, rebel forces had solidified control of Tripoli, and the TNC began to transfer operations to the capital. Gaddafi, forced to abdicate from power, remained in hiding. The TNC achieved new international legitimacy on September 15th when the United Nations General Assembly voted to recognise it as the representative of the Libyan people in the UN, and on October 20th Gaddafi was discovered and killed by rebel fighters in his hometown, Sirte, as they fought to solidify control of the city. 

The TNC struggled to establish a functional government and exert authority in the months following the fall of the Gaddafi regime. As local rebel militias that fought autonomously during the uprising, especially those in western Libya, were reluctant to submit to an interim government formed in eastern Libya with little input from the rest of the country, they were suspicious of some of the TNC officials and their past ties to the Gaddafi regime. Since the ouster and subsequent death of Muammar al-Gaddafi Libya has struggled to rebuild state institutions, for this reason, there is a battle for sovereignty and establishment of legitimate governance.

Civil war and the lack of a central authority 

In July 2012, the transitional government ceded authority to the newly elected General National Congress, which faced numerous challenges over the next two years including the September 2012 attack by Islamist militants on the U.S. consulate in Benghazi and the spread of Islamic State and other armed groups throughout the country. 

In May 2014, General Khalifa Haftar launched Operation Dignity, a campaign conducted by the Libyan National Army (LNA) to attack Islamist militant groups across eastern Libya, including Benghazi and to counter the movement of Islamist militants and armed groups, which formed a coalition named Libya Dawn. 

Each coalition has created governing institutions and named military chiefs, facing internal fragmentation and division. To find a resolution, the then-UN special envoy to Libya, Bernardino Leon, followed by Martin Koble, facilitated a series of talks between the Tobruk-based House of Representatives (HoR) and the Tripoli-based GNC. The talks resulted in the creation of the Libyan Political Agreement and the UN-supported Government of National Accord (GNA) in December 2015. 

Taking advantage of the widespread political instability, armed Islamist groups including Ansar al-Sharia and the Islamic State have used the country as a hub to coordinate broader regional violence. While in control, the members committed numerous human rights abuses for which they currently face trial in Libya. 

Though rival groups agreed to hold elections in December 2018, UN Special Envoy to Libya Ghassan Salame said elections would be postponed to Spring 2019. UN-led mediation efforts subsequently made little progress as the war escalated and civilian casualties rose through May 2020. 

Moreover, on September 21, 2021, the HoR dashed hopes of elections after passing a vote of no-confidence against the Government of National Unity. The HoR called for the dissolution of the GNU, arguing its mandate expired on December 24th, however Dbeibah refused to step down and said he would remain in government until elections were held. Subsequently, the HoR approved a new cabinet with Fathi Bashagha as prime minister, setting up a rival government in Sirte.  

Central bank formations and consolidation of oil field controls

The GNA declared a state of emergency in Tripoli in September 2018. Attempts to create a unity government failed due to the HoR and GNA continuing to compete for power. Both governing bodies consolidated control over oil fields and created their central banks as a result. 

Rival armed groups, including militias loyal to Haftar and the GNA’s security forces, continued to fight over access to and control of Libya’s National Oil Corporation (NOC) and regional oil fields. Considering oil/crude petroleum is Libya’s largest export, this is detrimental to its economic status quo. 

The rival east and west-based authorities stepped up their fight for the bank, the sole legal repository of tens of billions of dollars in oil revenue. Due to the present precipitation of a partial shutdown of oil production and the suspension of financial transactions with most foreign financial institutions, denied access to a large portion of oil revenues and cash reserves essential for covering state expenditures and importing goods could plummet Libya into economic collapse, leading to severe food shortages and possibly popular protest/an outbreak of further militia violence. 

It is important to note the battle over the Central Bank broke out against the backdrop of the deadlock of the UN-sponsored negotiations between the parliament based in the east and the Tripoli-based assembly, which itself is divided between supporters of the Dbeibah government calling for the prime minister to be replaced.

The standoff could paralyse the economy, prompting armed groups to mobilise. The impasse stopped imports and led most foreign financial institutions to suspend transactions with the Central Bank, the cost of being isolated from globalisation and markets would be great for Libyan authorities and civilians. 

Glossary:

Libyan National Army: Nationalist coalition of military units, local and tribal militias, and Salafi fighters led by Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar

Government of National Accord: The Government of National Accord is an interim government for Libya that was formed under the terms of the Libyan Political Agreement, a United Nations-led initiative. Currently controls the capital Tripoli and areas surrounding it. 

Government of National Unity: The Government of National Unity is a provisional government for Libya formed on 10 March 2021 to unify the rival Government of National Accord based in Tripoli and the Second Al-Thani Cabinet, based in Tobruk. 

Political Impasse: A political standstill in which leaders are unable to make significant progress in any clear direction. A position in which progress is seemingly impossible. In other words, political stalemate. 

Authoritarian Governance: Authoritarianism is defined as blind submission to authority and the suppression of individual freedom of thought and action. Authoritarian regimes are systems of government that have no established mechanism for the transfer of executive power and do not afford their citizens civil liberties or political rights.

Ethno-religious tensions: Refers to tensions involving groups where religion is an integral part of social and cultural life, and religious institutions are representative, possess moral legitimacy, and mobilisation potential.

Legitimacy: The extent to which an action possesses sound and just authority. In effect, the extent to which an action is legal, fair, just, effective, beneficial, and so on. 

Sovereignty: The internationally respected authority of a state over a given region. This includes the acceptance and obedience of an area's population to its sovereign government, as well as the noninterference of any other state in the territory of a sovereign state.  

Ceasefire: Cessation of all acts of violence against. the civilian population; acts of vengeance; summary executions; torture; harassment; detention and persecution of civilians

Up Next